“The originality of Italian neorealism, as compared with chief schools of realism that preceeded it, lies in never making reality the servant of some apriori [ie pre-existing] point of view . . . It is from appearance only, the simple appearance of beings and the world . . .” ~ André Bazin
Introduction
André Bazin, renowned French film theorist and critic, believed that the genre of Italian neorealism was all about relying on the ‘simple appearance’ of reality, and in my opinion, his statement accurately describes the genre of films that were made during the Italian post-war period. When compared to the ‘chief schools of realism’ that came before it, namely the era of white-telephone filmmaking, Italian neo-realism became a type of film that really went out of its way to document the reality of the world and the human beings that reside in it in a way that the pre-war films refused to do. The neo-realist films from the post-war period that I will discuss in relation to Bazin’s statement in this essay are ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945), ‘Germany Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) and ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (De Sica, 1948). While referring to these three films, I will analyse and compare how they make use of style, setting and themes, and how they correspond with the notion of the so-called ‘simple appearance of beings and the world.’
Style
The style of Italian neorealism accomplished much with regard to its simplistic portrayal of beings and the world, and there are many examples of this style to be seen in the films of Roberto Rossellini and Vittorio De Sica. Rossellini once said in an interview that he didn’t want to use films to voice his personal opinions (Di Bernardo, Rossellini, 1977, p. 32). The neo-realist director stated that his films were simply a form of ‘data’ and that the reason he mainly used long-shots was because close-ups were a way of stating his opinions, and he regarded cinema as a portrayal of ‘illustrations of personal, mental, and verbal processes’ (Di Bernardo, Rossellini, 1977, p. 32).
There is much about Rossellini’s style that can be related back to Bazin’s statement on neo-realism. The author Cadel says in her writings that even from the beginning of Rossellini’s post-war film ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (1948), the long-shots seemed to condense ‘individual human subjects to small elements of a wider system’ and acted as a ‘microscopic lens’ when showing the ruins and desolation of Berlin and the people in it (2016, p. 274). This can also be compared to ‘Rome, Open City’ (1945), where Rossellini used extensive shots of urban landscapes that ‘went beyond the traditional establishing shot’ (2003, p. 34). Adding to this, Bondanella has stated that the ‘definition of the so-called photographic realism in Roma citta aperta thus depends in some measure on our personal experience and knowledge of cinematic history’ (1993, p. 48). Like other Italian neo-realist films, ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945) was made in the documentary style, which was ‘one of the benchmarks of traditional definitions of neorealism’ (Bondanella, 1993, p. 48).
Adding to the simple appearance of realism was the film’s grainy quality and the inclusion of real scenes from war documentaries (Bondanella, 1993, p. 48). The photographic style in the film was also ‘realistic’ for audiences at the time because they associated ‘black-and-white film photography with "real" events’ (Bondanella, 1993, p. 48). Post-synchronisation of sound, another prominent feature in Italian neorealist films, was also used to heighten the realism in ‘Rome, Open City’ (1945), as according to Bondanella, it was seen as a ‘factor’ of the neorealist aesthetic (1993, p. 48). By doing this, Rossellini had to dub the sound after filming was complete and chose to have the German characters speak in German and the Italians speak in Italian (Bondanella, 1993, p. 49).
In his writings on De Sica’s ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (1948), Jacobson described the director’s ‘creative’ use of camerawork as having an ‘amateurish’ quality to it (1949, p. 32). Throughout the film, the camera moves ‘searchingly’ around workers’ living quarters and manages to set off Ricci and Bruno ‘against the majestic buildings’ of Rome, which can also be compared to the camerawork style of Rossellini. (Jacobson, 1949, p. 32) According to Jacobson, De Sica’s camerawork also echoed aspects of the silent film genre, including the effect of the ‘dawning of consciousness in a whole city,’ which De Sica achieved by using ‘natural twilight’ in the film or an ‘out-of focus’ camera lens (1949, p. 32). Jacobson notes in his writings how De Sica creates a ‘humanistic’ type of film by focusing on the theme of social justice and uses his camerawork and directorial techniques to highlight the individualist philosophy that is present in ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (1949, p. 32).
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Another prominent aspect of Italian neorealist style was the widespread use of non-professional actors (Bondanella, 1993, p. 49). For example, in ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (1948), Vittorio De Sica chose Lamberto Maggiorani, a poor factory worker, and Enzo Staiola, the young son of a flower vendor who De Sica spotted in a crowd that had gathered to watch an outdoor scene being filmed for ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (1948), to play the father and son characters of Ricci and Bruno respectively (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182). In his writings, Jacobson described Staiola as someone who had the ability to ‘make you run the gamut from laughter to tears’ like Charlie Chaplin (1949, p. 32). He also chose Lianella Carella, a journalist from a Roman newspaper, who came to interview De Sica about his film, to play the part of Bruno’s mother (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182). In his writings, Jacobson lauded De Sica’s gift for finding raw talent among ordinary people, and ‘developing it in a fitting atmosphere’ (1949, p. 32). Though Rossellini often cast professional actors in his films, such as ‘Rome, Open City,’ he too followed this neo-realist tradition. There is no doubt that this practice of casting ordinary working people instead of professional actors in neo-realist films had a significant impact on how neo-realist films achieved their simplistic appearance.
Setting
The use of setting in Italian neorealist films, particularly those made during the post-war era, was an aspect that contributed to the simplistic appearances of the world. It is important to note that Rossellini used on-location settings for his films during the Fascist rule in Italy, as well as during the post-war period (Bondanella, 1993, p. 47). Despite the fact that neorealism was a genre that avoided portraying reality from a pre-existing point of view, which was the white-telephone era of Italian filmmaking, the use of ‘authentic settings’ was a method that Rossellini continued to employ throughout his filmmaking career (Bondanella, 1993, p. 47). He may also have been influenced by the likes of other Fascist-era filmmakers who used ‘authentic settings’ in their films, such as Alessandrini and De Robertis (Bondanella, 1993, p. 47).
In ‘Rome, Open City’ (1945) Rossellini mainly used actual locations for filming, but according to Bondanella, he also constructed four interior sets for the ‘most important locations in the film’ which were ‘Don Pietro’s sacristy, Gestapo headquarters, the torture room, and the living room where the German officers relax’ which sets it apart from the general neo-realist practices, and indeed, other films from that genre (1993, p. 47). Throughout the film, Rossellini makes good use of the street settings, to such an extent that he received praise for making the ‘whole city of Rome’ the protagonist of ‘Rome, Open City’ (1945), which he partially achieved by capturing the urban locations using long shots as opposed to the ‘traditional establishing shot’ (Chambless, 2003, p. 34).
In comparison, ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948), is set in Berlin during the aftermath of World War II, and throughout the entirety of the film, Rossellini makes use of the locations in war-torn Berlin. Although Berlin is a non-Italian city, similarities can be drawn between this and the urban locations of ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945). Both cities in the two films have an army occupying them – Rome has been taken over by Nazis, and Berlin, by Allied forces. Like ‘Rome, Open City,’ (Rossellini, 1945) ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) doesn’t shy away from portraying the desolation caused by war and its effects on the ordinary people, particularly how it severely impacts the life of the protagonist, a young boy called Edmund. The film follows Edmund as he wanders around his bleak environment, a city that is now nothing more than destroyed buildings and rubble. According to the author Cadel, Gilles Deleuze describes ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) as a film that ‘presents a child who visits a foreign country […] and who dies of what he sees’ (Deleuze 2., cited in 2016, p. 274). This desolate setting adds to the simple appearance of Edmund’s world and indeed, the simplistic way in which he perceives life.
According to Cardullo, the value of ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (De Sica, 1948), can only be realised when we consider its ‘socio-historical context’, which is the reality of life in post-war Italy (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182). Like ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) this film shows the effects of World War II on the lives of ordinary people, who suffer from unemployment, poverty and overcrowding (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182). The main character Ricci manages to get a job posting advertising bills but runs into serious trouble when his bicycle, which he needs in order to work, is stolen (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182-183). This leads him to search the entire city of Rome for his stolen bicycle alongside his son Bruno, during which time the overcrowded trams that dominate the streets, street sellers and drab slums are put on full display for the viewers (Cardullo, 2000, p. 182-183). Like Rossellini’s films, this urban setting undoubtedly encapsulates the neorealist method of capturing the ‘simple appearance of beings and the world’
Themes
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Death is a particularly major theme that highlights the simple appearance of the world, and in so doing adds to the originality of Italian neo-realism. The most obvious example where this theme is in use is Pina’s death scene in ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945). This infamous scene in Rossellini’s film depicts the pregnant Pina chasing after a truck containing her fiancée Francesco, who has just been arrested by the Nazis, in the process of which she is brutally shot dead. When the priest Don Pietro holds her body, Rossellini evokes the image of the ‘Pieta’ sculpture by Michelangelo, which depicts the Virgin Mary holding the body of her Son, Jesus Christ. In this case however, it is the Christ-like figure of Don Pietro who is holding the body of the innocent mother.
‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) also evokes the theme of death, though in comparison to ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945), it is done from the perspective of a young boy. Edmund ends up poisoning his own father in the hope that it will make his life, and that of his siblings, less difficult. This terrible decision was influenced by Edmund’s old schoolteacher, who told the boy that eugenics was the right way to get rid of the sick and elderly. Even more harrowing is the scene where Edmund’s neighbours steal the clothes off his dead father’s body, displaying the lack of tact that people had in the post-war period, even towards the dead. Overcome with guilt, Edmund commits suicide by jumping off a building while his older siblings are frantically searching for him.
This leads to another important theme in ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) that also reflects on the simple appearance of the world – the loss of innocence. Rossellini had a particularly personal connection to ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (1948) as he dedicated the film to his deceased son Romano, who was around the same age as the character of Edmund when he died (Cadel, p. 275). As Cadel notes in her writings, Rossellini uses this film to explore the ‘effects of Nazism and its ideology on individual subjects’. In this case, the prime human subject who suffers the consequences of Nazi ideology in ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) is young Edmund. After being heavily influenced by his Nazi schoolteacher, Edmund kills his invalid father, believing that it would make his life, and that of his siblings, much better, and ends up throwing himself off a derelict building.
The death of innocence, mainly childhood innocence, was clearly what Rossellini wanted to explore in this film. Rossellini believed that only ‘criminal madness’ could be achieved by as a result of people being exposed to an evil ideology, stating that it ‘contaminates even the natural prudence of a child, who is swept along from one horrendous crime to another […] in which, with the ingenuousness of innocence, he thinks to find release from guilt’ (Rossellini 353, cited in Cadel, 2016, pp. 275-276). Edmund can no longer live with himself once he loses his innocence, thus in a way, he dies twice in Rossellini’s film. To a certain extent, the loss of innocence can also be seen in ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (De Sica, 1948), as young Bruno is forced to see the dark side of humanity after his father’s bicycle is stolen, and also takes on the role of an adult in the scene where he comforts his weeping father.
The concept of evil is another major theme that Italian post-war films use to highlight the simple appearance of the world. Rossellini’s notion of good and evil is made very clear in in his films, as he uses the narratives to explore the horrors of Nazism and the consequences that came with it. Referring to ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948), he stated that when an ideology ‘strays from the eternal laws of morality and of Christian charity, which form the basis of men's lives, it must end as criminal madness’ (Rossellini 353, cited in Cadel, 2016, pp. 275-276). Referring again to the ending of ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948), this evil is most clearly highlighted by Edmund’s naive belief that only the strongest and fittest should survive, and the sick and dying, should be disposed of as soon as possible. ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945), is also a narrative about the effects of evil. Manfredi’s former girlfriend Marina is enticed by Ingrid, a female Nazi officer, to betray him in exchange for drugs and a fur coat. Like Edmund, Marina was fatally naive, believing that she was doing the right thing - until she sees Manfredi’s dead body, causing her to scream and faint in horror.
Morality and the notion of guilt also plays a large role in ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948), notably in the case of Mr. Koeler, Edmund’s father, who laments how they were all to blame for the rise of Hitler and that they were now all paying for the consequences (Rossellini 434, cited in Cadel, 2016, p. 276). Mr Koeler also felt guilty about his illness, believing that he was nothing more than a burden for his children, and even begs in front of them, ‘Lord, why don’t you take me?’ (Cadel, 2016, p. 276). This is contrasted with Edmund’s older brother Karl-Heinz, who refuses to feel guilty for fighting in the German army until the very end. His selfish and cowardly nature is apparent when it is revealed that he is afraid of registering with the police and obtaining a ration card, because of the possibility that the Allied forces will find out that he loyally fought for Germany until the bitter end.
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In comparison, the desperation and loss of moral values that comes with severe poverty is also seen throughout ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (De Sica, 1948), but most notably when Ricci’s bicycle is stolen. When Ricci finally confronts the alleged thief, the perpetrator firmly denies committing the crime and the entire community gather to vouch for him. By the end of the film, Ricci becomes the very thing that he despises when he attempts to steal a random bicycle out of pure desperation for himself and his family. In ‘Germany, Year Zero,’ (Rossellini, 1948) after Mr Koeler dies, his neighbours unashamedly steal the last useful clothing that he has left, which are his undershirt and wool socks (Cadel, 2016, p. 278). This theme is also echoed in the scene from ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945) where a mob of ordinary people raids a bakery. After the local sexton declares that he cannot take part in stealing because of his employment at the church, he ends up joining the mob after all. This theme succeeds in capturing the ‘simple appearance of beings and the world’, because the loss of moral values within a society creates a simplistic outlook towards the world and its inhabitants.
In conclusion, the issues of style, setting and themes in these three neorealist films correspond with Bazin’s statement on the ‘originality’ of Italian post-war neorealism. The notion that the original idea of Italian neo-realism stems from a desire to portray the ‘beings and the world’ in a simplistic way rings true, and there is little doubt that Rossellini and De Sica strived for that visual appearance while making their films. ‘Rome, Open City’ (Rossellini, 1945), ‘Germany, Year Zero’ (Rossellini, 1948) and ‘Bicycle Thieves’ (De Sica, 1948) all used unique styles, urban settings and themes, such as poverty, death, and evil, in order to present a simplistic appearance of the desolate world during the post-war years of Italy.
Bibliography:
Bondanella, P. (1993), ‘The Films of Roberto Rossellini: Roma citta aperta and the Birth of Italian Neorealism’ Cambridge University Press
Cadel, F. (2016). ‘Mutations and Mutants in Europe after World War II: "Germany, Year Zero" by Roberto Rossellini.’ Italica, 93(2), 274-285. Retrieved December 26, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44504564
Cardullo, B. (2000). Actor-Become-Auteur: The Neorealist Films of Vittorio De Sica. The Massachusetts Review, 41(2), 173-192. Retrieved January 7, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25091652
Chambless, A. (2003). ‘REVISITING THE RESISTANCE OF ROBERTO ROSSELLINI'S CINEMA.’ Romance Notes, 44(1), 31-39. Retrieved December 26, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43802338
Di Bernardo, G., & Rossellini, R. (1977). ‘ROBERTO ROSSELLINI TALKS ABOUT MARX, FREUD AND JESUS: AN INTERVIEW BY GIOVANNA DI BERNARDO’, Cinéaste, 8(1), 32-33. Retrieved December 31, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42683134
Jacobson, H. (1949). ‘De Sica's "Bicycle Thieves" and Italian Humanism’, Hollywood Quarterly, 4(1), 28-33. doi:10.2307/1209381